The Landscape of Water Access

Cities across India face significant challenges in providing basic necessities to their citizens. One of the most important is the availability of potable water. Households on a day-to-day basis deal with various problems related to drinkable water supply. Various urban reforms, infrastructural projects, support from self-help groups, NGOs, international organisations and city administrators try to bridge the gaps. Potable water within Indian cities is either supplied, bought, stolen or taken from a leak. Various issues arise like 24x7 availability, quantity and quality of water and the cost at which potable water can be bought. This accessibility carves out a distinction between various citizen groups, where a contrast in the ‘citizenships’ emerges within the cityscape. This article, with Delhi as a case study, tries to graphically visualise the landscape of the majority and minority within the city and highlights the inequalities based upon ‘access’ to potable water.

Delhi’s water supply heritage

The history of potable water within the city can be surmised by a glimpse at its historical landscape. Settled, deserted and resettled over centuries, Delhi is imprinted with some of the most beautiful and indigenous public water structures. Spread across its seven historical cities, one can see the historical kunds (water ponds), baolis (stepwells), tanks and canals preserved as part of the ‘touristic heritage’. These indigenous water works provided drinking water by careful manipulation of the landscape, through surface water structures, catchment dams and underground recharge stepped wells. In the Mughal city, the canals were the first of their kind and brought water from faraway areas for the capital of the empire. Chandni Chowk was named after the reflection of the moon within the royal canals, which once passed through it.

The city, which stored, diverted and recharged its water, established a piped water supply and water treatment plants at the advent of the colonial expansion in 1921 (Delhi Jal Board). The new system, installed in North Delhi, brought in 32 million litres each day, catering to a population of three lakhs of the newly established New Delhi (Delhi Masterplan 2021). Over the last 100 years this public infrastructure has changed dramatically. The improvement and expansion of the water works allowed the population to grow from a cluster of cities into the megacity we see today.

Delhi 2017: The existing water supply scenario

To provide water to the expanding population, the city needs to source water from various surface and subsurface sources. Dams, reservoirs, canals and future projects in the neighbouring states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand will provide Delhi with 76% of its water needs (Delhi Jal Board). The geographical location of transporting water led to the creation of massive infrastructure of more than 12,000 kilometres of pipelines and funded various upstream dams and new public water works in the last few decades. Along with diverting huge proportions of natural surface water, the city discharges massive amount of sewage within the city itself. Approximately 17% of the water is supplied by illegal means such as private water tankers drawing water from illegal bore wells (www.yamunariverproject.org). All of this has led to the creation of a differentiated water infrastructure, dotting the city with various water and waste water plants. The new infrastructure is constantly expanding the ‘water-requirement-shed’ of the city.

These indigenous water works provided drinking water by careful manipulation of the landscape

Fast forward to 2021

Delhi is projected to be a city of 23 million by 2021, resulting in a water demand of 1380 million litres per day (MLD), as forecasted by the Delhi Jal Board. The 27% increase in population from 18 million will lead to further expansion and increase of water treatment plants. To meet its ever-increasing demand, the city is constantly investing in development of new infrastructure to ensure potable water access to its citizens, yet the shortcomings have led to creation of differentiated access to potable water.

Quality of water

25% of drinking water needs within the city are met by ground water sources, especially in areas that do not have access to piped water supply. Most of the contamination is present along the peripheral areas, erstwhile low lying areas and areas along the flood plains. It exposes households to health risks such as fever, nausea, vomiting, gastroenteritis and gastric intestinal inflammation. Salinity, nitrate, faecal and industrial contaminants become the major source of pollution due to sewage discharge. Settlements within the 25% of non-serviced areas, release sewage water in an organised manner, which significantly pollutes both surface and ground water sources. This risk is also high along the areas where ground water is under stress due to excessive extraction, along the South Delhi ridge. Many of the ground water resources have been found to be highly contaminated primarily due to solid waste landfills, sewage discharge, faecal contamination and industrial pollution, coming from both upstream and within the city. Along with the private supply, a lot of the public water network draws water from the various underground wells, putting an additional burden on the water treatment infrastructure within the city.

More than 30% of Delhi’s water is found to be contaminated and is unfit for potable purposes. This situation is aggravated in places where ground water is predominantly used for drinking purposes. According to central ground water reports, the city has 200,000-400,000 legal and illegal bore wells. In many of the ground water neighbourhoods, the illegal bore wells have led to mushrooming of RO (reverse osmosis) water suppliers. The ‘safe RO water’ is supplied to households at a cost of. 220 to 80 for 20 litres, depending upon the neighbourhood. A primary survey highlights that most of the underground water is polluted with nitrate concentration. (Shikha Bisht, Assessment of drinking water quality of Delhi, 2007)

Fragmented water landscape: Water accessibility based on socio-economic and spatial conditions

The rapid urbanisation of the city has put more stress on the expansion of its waterworks for accommodating future needs. Study of economic data and spatial superimposition of existing conditions highlight the fragmented landscape of water accessibility (Delhi Economic Survey, 2016). The fragmented parts of the city highlight different conditions of potable water access. Central Delhi enjoys the most comfortable position within the city in terms of both quantity and quality of water. But peripheral Delhi faces difficulties due to private water supply at higher cost because of incomplete water infrastructure. Most of Central and North Delhi as well as East Delhi require additional water requirements due to the prevalence of dense and economically weaker wards. (Sewerage Master Plan for Delhi 2031)

More than 30% of Delhi’s water is found to be contaminated and is unfit for potable purposes

Conclusion

As the city is positioned to become one of the biggest urban agglomerates amongst global cities, the provision of basic services to citizens will become more and more challenging. With development and changing lifestyles, water demand is likely to grow in comparison to present needs. Furthermore, with climate change, unpredictable weather patterns are impacting availability of fresh water resources that could lead to unmanageable water crises. Indications of water stress are already visible in most Indian cities. Unsustainable water management practices and ineffective policies represent unpreparedness towards upcoming water crises. With the new ambitious initiatives by the government like 24X7 potable water supply and new public-private collaboration, there are hopes for better infrastructure and better water quality for the city. In order to effectively manage the demand for water, the focus should be on water conservation practices.  There should be engagement through technology, environmental and social policy reforms and public awareness and education. We need to focus on cleaning the rivers, sustainable water management practices and developing stronger water institutions.

All graphics and photos: Authors